ARCHIVED – Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada – Client profile and performance indicators

Section 4: LINC Performance Results

  • From 2005 to 2008, 177,059 LINC courses were completed in Canada. [ Note 22 ] The calculated performance scores indicate that 84.3 percent of clients meet LINC level requirements, 10 percent exceed LINC level requirements and 5.6 percent do not meet LINC level requirements (Table 10).

Table 10: Completed LINC Courses and Average Hours by Performance Score – Canada, 2005-2008

Performance Score Number Share (%) Average Hours
Not meeting LINC level 9,956 5.6 186
Meeting LINC level 148,866 84.3 267
Exceeding LINC level 17,740 10.0 470
Canada - Total 176,562 100.0 283

Source: iCAMS and HARTs, CIC

  • Put another way, roughly 19 out of 20 (94.3 percent) clients who complete a LINC course either meet or exceed the language competencies associated with the LINC level they completed. In contrast, 1 out of 20 (5.6 percent) clients who complete a LINC course do not meet the language competencies associated with the LINC level they completed.
  • LINC clients during 2005-2008 spend an average of 283 hours in class to complete a LINC course.
  • The number of hours in class varies significantly across language performance scores and increases with performance scores. LINC clients who meet the level requirements spend an average of 267 hours in class, 44 percent more time than those who do not meet the LINC level requirements (186 hours). Clients exceeding the level requirements study 470 hours in class on average, 76 percent more time compared to the average time spent for meeting course requirements.
  • Many factors can influence language performance scores and average hours spent in class. Differences in grading techniques and LINC level expectations for different SPOs are an important consideration and ideally grading should be consistent in order to improve the reliability of performance scores. [ Note 23 ]
  • Our analysis, however, will concentrate on human capital and other socio-demographic characteristics that are available in the Immigration Contribution Accountability Measurement System (iCAMS) and HARTs administrative data systems to assess language performance scores.  Performance indicators are presented for the following characteristics:
    • Province of residence
    • Gender
    • Age
    • Category of immigration
    • Length of residence in Canada
    • Educational attainment
    • Place of birth
    • Mother tongue

Province of residence

  • The data in Table 11 indicate that the vast majority of completed LINC courses during 2005-2008 were in Ontario (91.3 percent or 161,266). The rest of Canada (ROC) [ Note 24 ] accounted for only 8.7 percent (15,296) of all completions, with Alberta recording the highest number of completions for ROC.

Table 11: Share (%) of Completed LINC Courses by Performance Score and Province, 2005-2008

Performance Score NL PE NS NB ON SK AB Canada
 Not meeting LINC level 2.5 8.4 3.9 2.8 5.7 11.0 4.7 5.6
 Meeting LINC level 94.0 82.1 95.2 70.5 85.4 77.9 71.0 84.3
 Exceeding LINC level 3.6 9.5 0.9 26.7 9.0 11.1 24.4 10.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: iCAMS and HARTs, CIC

  • There is some variance of performance scores by province. New Brunswick (26.7 percent) and Alberta (24.4 percent) have relatively higher shares of course completions exceeding LINC level requirements as compared to overall completions in Canada (10 percent). Saskatchewan has relatively higher shares not meeting LINC level requirements (11 percent).

Table 12: Average Hours Taken to Complete a LINC Course by Performance Score and Province, 2005-2008

Performance Score NL PE NS NB ON SK AB Canada
 Not meeting LINC level 167 217 246 263 172 256 374 184
 Meeting LINC level 310 352 286 338 262 389 334 267
 Exceeding LINC level 369 208 310 442 484 549 400 470
Total 309 348 285 360 277 393 351 283

Source: iCAMS and HARTs, CIC

  • On average, LINC clients in Ontario tend to spend much less time in class to complete a course than those in ROCNote 25 ]; however, those exceeding the level requirements in Ontario spend 20 percent more class time than their counterparts in other provinces.
  • Clients taking LINC training in Saskatchewan seem to spend the longest time in class to complete a level among all provinces. This may reflect the over representation of refugees among LINC clients in Saskatchewan (45 percent for Saskatchewan compared to 33 percent for Canada).

Gender and age

  • As Figure 6 indicates, females account for the majority of completions during 2005-2008 with roughly 70 percent (123,000) of the total. The gender composition also indicates that the performance of females is relatively better as compared to males. Females are over represented in the exceeding LINC level requirements category (75 percent) and are under represented in the not meeting LINC level requirements (66 percent) group.

Figure 6: Share (%) of Completed LINC Courses by Performance Score and Gender, 2005-2008

Share (%) of Completed LINC Courses by Performance Score and Gender, 2005-2008

Source: iCAMS and HARTs, CIC

  • In contrast, males account for 30 percent (54,000) of completions, with an under representation of those who exceed LINC level requirements (25 percent) and an over representation for those who do not meet LINC level requirements (34 percent).

Figure 7: Number of Completed LINC Courses by Performance Score and Age, 2005-2008

Number of Completed LINC Courses by Performance Score and Age, 2005­2008

Source: iCAMS and HARTs, CIC

  • Immigrants aged 25-44 are most likely to complete a LINC course and account for 66 percent (117,000) of all completions. Not surprisingly youth aged 15-24 and elders 65+ are least likely to complete a LINC course, 13 percent (22,000) and 3 percent (4,600), respectively. Other types of formal educational training are most likely limiting the number of youth taking LINC training and fewer numbers of new older immigrants arriving in Canada are influencing the composition.

Table 13: Average Hours Taken to Complete a LINC Course by Gender and Age Group, 2005-2008

Gender/Age Average hours
Male  240
Female 302
 
15-24 yrs 226
25-44 yrs 266
45-64 yrs 360
65/+ yrs 448

Source: iCAMS and HARTs, CIC

  • Female immigrants appear to have spent more time in class to complete a LINC course than their male counterparts. As shown in Table 13, the average time in class for males is 240 hours while for females it is 302 hours, 26 percent more time.
  • The average number of hours spent in class increases with the age of clients.
    • For young immigrants between 15 and 24 years of age, the average time spent in class is 226 hours.
    • Clients aged 25-44 spend 40 more hours in class to complete a course.
    • For those aged 45-64, it takes them much longer to finish a LINC course, compared to younger clients (360 hours).
    • Clients 65 years and older have to spend almost double the amount of time (448 hours) to complete a course compared to the youngest group.

Immigration category

  • Skilled worker (38 percent or 67,000) and family class (35 percent or 62,000) immigrants make up the majority of LINC course completions. Refugees also make up a significant share at 19 percent (34,000). Other economic immigrants account for 5 percent (9,000) and the share for other immigrants is 2 percent (4,000).

Table 14: Share (%) of Completed LINC Courses by Performance Score and Category, 2005-2008

Performance Score Family Class Skilled Workers Other Economic Refugees Other Total
Not meeting LINC level 6.6 4.9 5.4 5.5 4.7 5.6
Meeting LINC level 84.0 84.4 85.9 83.9 87.7 84.3
Exceeding LINC level 9.4 10.7 8.7 10.6 7.6 10.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: iCAMS and HARTs, CIC

  • Table 14 shows the relative performance by category of immigration. A striking feature is the relative balance across the scores of each major immigrant category. Skilled workers, family class and refugees all report 84 percent of completions meeting LINC level requirements and similar rates for completions exceeding LINC level requirements. One point of note is that family class immigrants have a slightly higher rate (6.6 percent) of completions not meeting LINC level requirements.
  • As shown in Table 15, a LINC client during 2005-2008 spends an average of 283 hours in class to complete a LINC course, ranging from a low of 238 hours for skilled workers to a high of 381 hours for refugees.

Table 15: Average Hours Taken to Complete a LINC Course by Immigration Category, 2005-2008

Immigration Category NL PE NS NB ON SK AB Canada
Family Class 246 227 253 420 272 357 331 275
Skilled Workers 180 312 274 370 231 386 337 238
Other Economic 339 258 267 395 283 319 321 286
Refugees 320 424 334 305 381 443 392 381
Other 243 0 279 326 309 238 305 309
Total 309 348 285 360 277 394 351 283

Source: iCAMS and HARTs, CIC

  • Among all immigration categories, refugees spend nearly 100 more hours, or 35 percent more time in class to complete a course than the average for all immigrants (283 hours). Family class immigrants and other economic immigrants spend comparable hours to complete a course (275 and 286 hours, respectively).
  • While skilled workers in Ontario and Newfoundland and Labrador have the smallest numbers of hours in class to finish a LINC course, this is not the case for LINC clients in other provinces during 2005-2008.
  • Skilled workers participating in a LINC course in Saskatchewan spend an average of 386 hours per client per level to complete a course, the second longest attendance duration following the 443 hours for refugees.
  • Skilled worker clients in Alberta have spent more hours in class (337 hours) compared to immigrants other than refugees. The longer durations for skilled workers in Alberta may also reflect the 300-per-unit scale for hours in Alberta. [ Note 26 ]

Figure 8: Average Hours Taken to Complete a LINC Course by Performance Score and Immigration Category, 2005-2008

Average Hours Taken to Complete a LINC Course by Performance Score and Immigration Category, 2005-2008

Source: iCAMS and HARTs, CIC

  • Figure 8 shows similar patterns of average hours taken to complete a LINC course across the LINC performance score levels. At all levels, skilled workers spend the least hours in class while refugees spend the most hours to complete a LINC course.
  • Figure 8 also indicates that time spent in class increases with the performance scores across all immigration categories. This result confirms the positive relationship between study durations and the performance scores.

Length of residence

  • There is an even distribution of immigrants completing LINC training during their first three years in Canada. Roughly 23 percent of LINC completions occur during the immigrants’ first year in Canada, 31 percent occur between year 1 and 2, and the share declines to 16 percent between year 2 and 3. The balance of LINC completions (30 percent) happen after immigrants have been residing in Canada for 3 years or more. [ Note 27 ]
  • Note that once permanent residents become Canadian citizens
  • In general, the results indicate a positive correlation between length of residence in Canada and success in LINC courses.
    • As illustrated in Figure 8, the share of completions not meeting LINC level requirements decreases steadily during the first three years in Canada from 7.3 percent to 5.3 percent to 4.5 percent.
    • Conversely, completions exceeding LINC level requirement rose from 7.0 percent to 10.7 percent to 12.1 percent for each of the first three years, respectively.
    • Meeting LINC level requirements declined slightly from the initial period but remained steady in subsequent years.
  • There is, however, a higher rate of completions not meeting LINC levels and a lower rate of completions exceeding LINC levels for immigrants who have been in Canada for 3 years or more. This contradicts the trends evident during the initial years in Canada and may be a result of individuals moving to higher levels of LINC training. However, further research is required in order to make a proper assessment of the trends the data is showing.

Figure 9: Performance Scores and Average Hours by Length of Residence, 2005-2008

Performance Scores and Average Hours by Length of Residence, 2005­2008

Source: iCAMS and HARTs, CIC

  • As shown in Figure 4.10, average attended hours in class increase with the length of residence in Canada – average study duration is highest for immigrants who have been in Canada for three years or more (382 hours), and lowest for those newly arrived immigrants who landed less than one year ago (162 hours).

Education

  • Higher levels of educational attainment appear to have little impact on performance scores for LINC completions. Similar to what is seen for immigrant categories, there appears to be very little variance in performance scores by educational attainment.

Table 16: Share (%) of Completed LINC Courses by Performance Score and Education, and Average Hours by Education, 2005-2008

Performance Score Secondary or less Non-university Certificate University degree Graduate degree BA, MA, PhD Total
Not meeting LINC level 5.8% 5.6% 5.5% 6.5% 5.7% 5.6%
Meeting LINC level 85.0% 83.5% 83.9% 84.6% 84.1% 84.3%
Exceeding LINC level 9.2% 10.9% 10.5% 9.0% 10.2% 10.0%
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
 
Average hours 342 263 241 205 234 283

Source: iCAMS and HARTs, CIC

  • In fact, the data presented in Table 16 indicate that clients with a graduate degree have lower shares of individuals meeting or exceeding LINC level requirements as compared to clients who have secondary or less levels of education. Again, this is an issue that requires further investigation and may be result of variations in the LINC completion levels for the different groups identified.
  • Clients with higher education require considerably less time in class to complete a LINC course. For example, clients with secondary or less education require 342 hours, on average, to finish a course. In contrast, those with a university degree require 241 hours, nearly 100 hours less, to complete a course. Those with a master’s or doctoral degree have 205 hours in class to complete a LINC course.

Country of birth and mother tongue

  • Performance scores by country of birth can vary significantly and this is displayed in Table 17. Scores for major source countries show Russia as having the best performance in terms of the highest share of clients either meeting of exceeding LINC level requirements at 96.7 percent - Russia also has the largest share exceeding LINC level requirements (14.4 percent). China accounts for the largest number of LINC course completions and also does quite well in relation to most other countries with 96.3 percent of clients either meeting of exceeding LINC level requirements.
  • The poorest performance by major country of birth is India with 88.5 percent of clients either meeting or exceeding LINC level requirements – India also has the lowest percentage exceeding LINC level requirements at 5.4 percent. It is believed that there is a significant variance in the performance by category and further investigation of the results (especially for India) is warranted.

Table 17: Share (%) of Completed LINC Courses by Performance Score and Country of Birth, 2005-2008

Performance Score China India Iran Pakistan Colombia Afghanistan Sri Lanka Russia Korea Other Total
Not meeting LINC level 3.7 11.5 4.7 7.3 4.7 4.1 5.2 3.3 4.6 6.2 5.6
Meeting LINC level 86.8 83.1 85.1 85.3 82.6 84.0 86.5 82.3 84.5 82.8 84.3
Exceeding LINC level 9.5 5.4 10.1 7.4 12.7 11.8 8.3 14.4 10.9 11.0 10.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: iCAMS and HARTs, CIC

  • The results for clients who have Punjabi as a mother tongue are significantly poorer as compared to the overall average of all immigrants. Clients who complete a LINC course and who have Punjabi as a mother tongue are 3 times as likely not to meet LINC level requirements and only half as likely to exceed LINC level requirements.
  • Russian and Mandarin have the highest share of completions either meeting or exceeding LINC level requirements, with Russian having a greater share exceeding LINC levels and Mandarin having higher shares meeting LINC levels. This is an especially important result given that Mandarin speaking clients account for the largest share of LINC clients (20 percent or more depending on the province).

Table 18: Share (%) of Completed LINC Courses by Performance Score and Mother Tongue, 2005-2008

Performance Score Mandarin Spanish Arabic Persian/Farsi Russian Urdu Punjabi Other Total
Not meeting LINC level 3.6 5.7 7.3 4.6 3.5 7.2 16.6 5.8 5.6
Meeting LINC level 87.0 83.0 81.5 85.2 83.1 85.6 78.5 84.0 84.3
Exceeding LINC level 9.5 11.3 11.2 10.2 13.4 7.2 4.9 10.2 10.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: iCAMS and HARTs, CIC

Table 19: Average Hours Taken to Complete a LINC Course by Country of Birth and Mother Tongue, 2005-2008

Country of Birth/
Mother Tongue
Average hours
China 263
India 177
Iran 257
Afghanistan 490
Colombia 333
Russia 280
Korea 314
Other / Unknown 333
 
Mandarin 262
Spanish 302
Arabic 278
Russian 278
Persian/Farsi 305
Punjabi 181
Other / Unknown 297

Source: iCAMS and HARTs, CIC

  • Average hours taken to complete a LINC course also differ significantly by country of birth and mother tongue, as shown in Table 19.
  • For immigrants from China (263 hours), Iran (257 hours) and Russia (280 hours), the average time spent in class to complete a LINC course is in line with the overall average (283 hours). This result is not surprising, given the large shares of these groups in the population of LINC clients.
  • Immigrants from Afghanistan and Colombia require more time to finish a course, while those from India have the shortest duration for completion of a LINC course. These results may reflect the impacts of immigration category and official language ability on study durations to complete a LINC course. A substantial proportion of immigrants from Afghanistan and Colombia landed in Canada as refugees, and most Indian immigrants had some knowledge of English at landing.
  • Consistent with the results for country of birth, immigrants whose mother tongue is Mandarin, Arabic or Russian have comparable average attendance hours (262, 278 and 278 hours, respectively). Immigrants with Punjabi as a mother tongue have the lowest number of hours in class to complete a course, which partly confirms the result that immigrants from India tend to spend less time in class than other immigrants.
  • Although they usually had acquired some knowledge of English at landing, immigrants from India or those with Punjabi as a mother tongue have much poorer performance scores when exiting a LINC course, with considerably less time in a LINC class. The language performance scores seem to be largely determined by the duration of study.
  • However, this may be the result of Indian immigrants participating in higher levels of LINC training with higher expectations and requiring more time commitment. It points to differences among LINC levels and the real meaning of success in completing a LINC course.

22. Due to Alternative Funding Arrangements with CIC, Quebec, Manitoba and British Columbia do not report data through iCAMS and are therefore excluded from all calculations reported in this analysis.

23. Additional information regarding grading techniques is provided in Appendix B.

24. Actually ROC in this paper refers to only part of the rest of Canada – Atlantic, Saskatchewan and Alberta.

25. Note that Alberta reports hours in a LINC class in a 300-per-unit scale. This may result in a slight upward bias in the average number of hours for clients in this province. See Footnote 24 for details.

26. For Alberta, a significant number of LINC completions have a common denominator of 300 hours. It appears some SPOs are entering the completed number of hours in segments of 300 (300, 600, 900, etc.). It also may indicate variations in LINC course guidelines for different SPOs. Further investigation of the data and SPO guidelines is required to get a better understanding of these occurrences.

27. Once permanent residents become Canadian citizens, they are no longer eligible for LINC training. Given the minimum residency requirements (3 years) for Canadian citizenship, it is not surprising to see the majority of LINC training occurring during the first three years after landing.

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