ARCHIVED – Social Capital and Wages - Outcome of Recent Immigrants to Canada
9. Appendix
Table A.1. Definitions of Social Capital and Wages Outcomes Estimation Variables
Dependent variable
- Log of real weekly wage: Weighted Mean
Independent variables
Immigration category
- Family: 1 if LR is in Family class, 0 otherwise. (Reference category)
- Skilled Workers (PA): 1 if LR landed as a Skilled Worker principal applicant, 0 otherwise
- Skilled Workers (S&D): 1 if LR landed as a Skilled Worker spouse and dependant, 0 otherwise
- Refugees: 1 if LR landed as a Refugee, 0 otherwise
- Others: 1 if LR landed in a immigration category other than Family Class, Skilled Workers (principal applicants and spouses and dependants) and Refugees, which mostly consists of business immigrants in economic class.
Demographic variables
- Age: Age in years
- Age Square: Age square/100
- Married: 1 if LR is married or living with a common-law partner, 0 if LR is single, separated or divorced, or widowed
Province of residence
- Atlantic Provinces: 1 if LR is living in Atlantic provinces:
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland and Labrador, 0 otherwise. - Quebec: 1 if LR is living in Quebec, 0 otherwise.
- Ontario: 1 if LR is living in Ontario, 0 otherwise. (Reference category)
- Manitoba and Saskatchewan : 1 if LR is living in Saskatchewan or Manitoba, 0 otherwise.
- Alberta: 1 if LR is living in Alberta, 0 otherwise.
- BC: 1 if LR is living in British Columbia, 0 otherwise.
Census metropolitan areas (CMAs)
- Toronto: 1 if LR is living in Toronto, 0 otherwise.
- Montreal: 1 if LR is living in Montreal, 0 otherwise.
- Vancouver: 1 if LR is living in Vancouver, 0 otherwise.
- Ottawa-Hull: 1 if LR is living in Ottawa-Hull, 0 otherwise.
- Calgary: 1 if LR is living in Calgary, 0 otherwise.
- Not in the Big 5 CMAs: 1 if LR is living in an area other than the big 5 CMAs, 0 otherwise.
Region of birth
- Asia and Pacific: 1 if region of birth is Asia and Pacific, 0 otherwise.
- North America, UK and Western Europe: 1 if region of birth is North America, UK and Western Europe, 0 otherwise. (Reference category)
- Central and South America: 1 if region of birth is Central America and South America, 0 otherwise.
- Europe except UK and Western Europe: 1 if region of birth is Europe except UK and Western Europe, 0 otherwise.
- Africa and Middle-East: 1 if region of birth is Africa and Middle-East, 0 otherwise.
Population group
- White: 1 if LR is white, 0 otherwise. (Reference category)
- Chinese: 1 if LR is Chinese, 0 otherwise.
- South Asian: 1 if LR is South Asian, 0 otherwise.
- Black: 1 if LR is Black, 0 otherwise.
- Filipino: 1 if LR is Filipino, 0 otherwise.
- Latin: 1 if LR is Latin, 0 otherwise.
- West Asian and Arab: 1 if LR is West Asian and Arab, 0 otherwise.
- Other Asian: 1 if LR is other Asian---South East Asian, Korean, Japanese, 0 otherwise.
- Other Visible Minority: 1 if LR is other visible minority---Visible minority n.i.e., Multiple visible minorities, White and visible minority, 0 otherwise.
Languages
- English: 1 if LR has the knowledge of English (speaking fairly well or better), 0 otherwise (poorly or none).
- French: 1 if LR has the knowledge of French (speaking fairly well or better), 0 otherwise (poorly or none).
Education
- High school diploma or less: 1 if LR has a master's degree or above, 0 otherwise.
- Some post-secondary education: 1 if LR has a bachelor's degree, 0 otherwise. (Reference category)
- College diploma or some university: 1 if LR has a college diploma or some university education, 0 otherwise.
- Bachelor's Degree: 1 if LR has some post-secondary education, 0 otherwise.
- Master's degree or above: 1 if LR has less than high school education or a high school diploma, 0 otherwise.
- Currently in school: 1 if LR is in school at the time of the interview, 0 otherwise
Experience
- Had work experience before landing: 1 if LR had work experience before landing, 0 otherwise
- Number of weeks in Canada after landing: Number of weeks in Canada
- Number of weeks in Canada after landing2: (Number of weeks in Canada) square/100
- Had an arranged job upon landing: 1 if LR had an arranged job when landing, 0 otherwise
- Visited Canada before landing: 1 if LR visited relatives or friends in Canada or visited Canada as a tourist before landing, 0 otherwise
- Worked in Canada before landing: 1 if LR worked in Canada before landing, 0 otherwise
- Studied in Canada before landing: 1 if LR studied in Canada before landing, 0 otherwise
- Number of current jobs: Total number of current jobs
- Hours worked per week: Hours currently worked per week
- Weeks in employment: Number of weeks at work since landing
- Skill level: Skill level of current main job: 1=O or A (i.e. management level is treated as skill level A), 2=B, 3=C, and 4=D.
Occupation group
- Management: 1 if the current main job is in the Management Occupations, 0 otherwise
- Business and Finance: 1 if the current main job is in the Business, Finance and Administrative Occupations
- Natural and Applied Sciences: 1 if the current main job is in the Natural and Applied Sciences and Related Occupations, 0 otherwise
- Health: 1 if the current main job is in the Health Occupations, 0 otherwise
- Social Science: 1 if the current main job is in the Occupations in Social Science, Education, Government Service and Religion, 0 otherwise
- Art, Culture and Recreation: 1 if the current main job is in the Occupations in Art, Culture, Recreation and Sport, 0 otherwise
- Sales and Services: 1 if the current main job is in the Sales and Service Occupations, 0 otherwise
- Trades, Transport and Equipment Operators: 1 if the current main job is in the Trades, Transport and Equipment Operators and Related Occupations, 0 otherwise
- Primary Industry: 1 if the current main job is in the Occupations Unique to Primary Industry, 0 otherwise
- Processing Manufacturing and Utilities: 1 if the current main job is in the Occupations Unique to Processing Manufacturing and Utilities, 0 otherwise
Social capital
_Channels through which current main job was found
- Job found through family ties: 1 if the current main job was found through family members or relatives, 0 otherwise.
- Job found through co ethnic friends: 1 if the current main job was found through friends in the same ethnic group as the LR, 0 otherwise.
- Job found through non-co ethnic friends: 1 if the current main job was found through friends in the ethnic group different than the LR, 0 otherwise.
_Relatives
- Number of relatives in Canada: Number of types of relatives (spouse, children, parents, grandparents, brothers or sisters, etc.) in Canada, ranging from 0 to 11.
- Relatives living nearby upon landing: 1 if most of the existing relatives upon landing were living in the same city or same province as LR, 0 otherwise.
- Relatives living far upon landing: 1 if most of the existing relatives upon landing were living in a place other than the city or province in which LR lived, 0 otherwise.
- Frequency of contact with family sponsors: Frequency of contact with family sponsor (0~1) :
- 0--- No sponsor or having not seen or talked to sponsors since arriving;
- Between 0 and 1 --- Seeing or talking to sponsors in varied frequencies; the higher the index is, the more frequently LR contacts with sponsors.
- 1--- Seeing or talking to sponsors every day.
_Friends
- Friends living nearby upon landing: 1 if most of the existing friends upon landing were living in the same city or same province as LR, 0 otherwise.
- Friends living far upon landing: 1 if most of the existing friends upon landing were living in a place other than the city or province in which LR lived, 0 otherwise.
- Number of sources meeting friends: Number of sources meeting new friends, ranging from 0 to 14.
- Ethnic diversity of friends: Ethnical diversity of friend network (0~1):
- 0--- No friends or all friends belong to the same ethnic or cultural groups as LR;
- Between 0 and 1 --- Some friends belong to the same ethnic or cultural groups as LR; the higher the index is, the more ethnically diversified is the friend network.
- 1--- None of the friends belong to the same ethnic or cultural groups as LR.
- Frequency of contact with friends: Frequency of contact with friends (0~1) :
- 0--- No friends or having not seen or talked to friends since arriving;
- Between 0 and 1 --- Seeing or talking to friends in varied frequencies; the higher the index is, the more frequently LR contacts with friends.
- 1--- Seeing or talking to friends every day.
- Ethnic diversity of workplace network: Ethnic diversity of workplace network (0~1):
- 0--- All the people with whom LR worked belong to the same ethnic or cultural groups as LR;
- Between 0 and 1 --- Some people with whom LR worked belong to the same ethnic or cultural groups as LR; the higher the index is, the more ethnically diversified is the friend network.
- 1--- None of the people with whom LR worked belong to the same ethnic or cultural groups as LR.
_Group and organizational network
- Participation in organization: 1 if LR participated in any organization or group, 0 otherwise.
Time effect
- Wave 2: 1 if the observation is in Wave 2 and 0 otherwise.
- Wave 3: 1 if the observation is in Wave 3 and 0 otherwise.
Instrumental variable
- Ethnic concentration ratio: The ethnic group concentration ratio in the CMA/CA where LR lived, derived from 2001 Census.
Table A.2. Survey means of variables in the estimations
Males | Females | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted Mean | Standard Error | Weighted Mean | Standard Error | |
Real weekly wage | 705.442 | 6.803 | 485.029 | 5.993 |
Log of weekly wage | 6.352 | 0.009 | 5.963 | 0.011 |
Immigration category | Males | Females | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted Mean | Standard Error | Weighted Mean | Standard Error | |
Family | 0.204 | 0.005 | 0.290 | 0.007 |
Skilled Workers (PA) | 0.593 | 0.007 | 0.239 | 0.007 |
Skilled Workers (S&D) | 0.107 | 0.004 | 0.390 | 0.008 |
Refugees | 0.050 | 0.002 | 0.041 | 0.003 |
Others | 0.045 | 0.003 | 0.039 | 0.003 |
Demographic variables | Males | Females | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted Mean | Standard Error | Weighted Mean | Standard Error | |
Age | 36.078 | 0.126 | 34.388 | 0.149 |
Age2 | 13.899 | 0.100 | 12.680 | 0.114 |
Married | 0.788 | 0.006 | 0.787 | 0.007 |
Province and CMA of residence | Males | Females | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted Mean | Standard Error | Weighted Mean | Standard Error | |
Atlantic Provinces | 0.008 | 0.001 | 0.006 | 0.001 |
Quebec | 0.130 | 0.005 | 0.119 | 0.005 |
Ontario | 0.576 | 0.007 | 0.580 | 0.008 |
Manitoba and Saskatchewan | 0.033 | 0.002 | 0.028 | 0.003 |
Alberta | 0.107 | 0.004 | 0.102 | 0.004 |
BC | 0.145 | 0.005 | 0.166 | 0.006 |
Toronto | 0.459 | 0.007 | 0.471 | 0.008 |
Montreal | 0.126 | 0.004 | 0.147 | 0.005 |
Vancouver | 0.114 | 0.004 | 0.100 | 0.005 |
Ottawa-Hull | 0.062 | 0.003 | 0.061 | 0.003 |
Calgary | 0.032 | 0.002 | 0.030 | 0.003 |
Not in the Big 5 CMAs | 0.208 | 0.005 | 0.192 | 0.006 |
Region of birth | Males | Females | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted Mean | Standard Error | Weighted Mean | Standard Error | |
Asia and Pacific | 0.603 | 0.007 | 0.618 | 0.008 |
North America, UK and Western Europe | 0.057 | 0.003 | 0.061 | 0.004 |
Central and South America | 0.063 | 0.003 | 0.072 | 0.004 |
Europe except UK and Western Europe | 0.114 | 0.004 | 0.125 | 0.005 |
Africa and Middle-East | 0.162 | 0.005 | 0.124 | 0.005 |
Ethnic group | Males | Females | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted Mean | Standard Error | Weighted Mean | Standard Error | |
White | 0.213 | 0.005 | 0.220 | 0.006 |
Chinese | 0.176 | 0.005 | 0.215 | 0.007 |
South Asian | 0.302 | 0.006 | 0.253 | 0.007 |
Black | 0.055 | 0.003 | 0.047 | 0.003 |
Filipino | 0.103 | 0.004 | 0.115 | 0.005 |
Latin | 0.024 | 0.002 | 0.034 | 0.003 |
West Asian and Arab | 0.085 | 0.004 | 0.066 | 0.004 |
Other Asian | 0.030 | 0.002 | 0.034 | 0.003 |
Other Visible Minority | 0.012 | 0.001 | 0.016 | 0.002 |
Education | Males | Females | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted Mean | Standard Error | Weighted Mean | Standard Error | |
High school diploma or less | 0.186 | 0.005 | 0.225 | 0.006 |
Some post-secondary education | 0.063 | 0.003 | 0.051 | 0.003 |
College diploma or some university | 0.114 | 0.004 | 0.173 | 0.006 |
Bachelor's degree | 0.404 | 0.007 | 0.381 | 0.008 |
Master's degree or above | 0.233 | 0.006 | 0.171 | 0.006 |
Currently in school | 0.104 | 0.004 | 0.106 | 0.005 |
Language ability | Males | Females | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted Mean | Standard Error | Weighted Mean | Standard Error | |
English | 0.916 | 0.004 | 0.862 | 0.005 |
French | 0.147 | 0.005 | 0.143 | 0.006 |
Experience | Males | Females | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted Mean | Standard Error | Weighted Mean | Standard Error | |
Had work experience before landing | 0.898 | 0.004 | 0.781 | 0.007 |
Number of weeks in Canada after landing | 138.501 | 1.220 | 146.614 | 1.442 |
Number of weeks in Canada after landing2 | 272.339 | 3.521 | 295.574 | 4.198 |
Had an arranged job upon landing | 0.111 | 0.004 | 0.054 | 0.004 |
Visited Canada before landing | 0.156 | 0.005 | 0.162 | 0.006 |
Worked in Canada before landing | 0.050 | 0.003 | 0.026 | 0.002 |
Studied in Canada before landing | 0.043 | 0.003 | 0.043 | 0.003 |
Job characteristics | Males | Females | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted Mean | Standard Error | Weighted Mean | Standard Error | |
Number of current jobs | 1.064 | 0.003 | 1.080 | 0.005 |
Hours worked per week | 41.046 | 0.162 | 36.003 | 0.234 |
Weeks in employment | 100.573 | 0.966 | 92.404 | 1.089 |
Skill level | 2.371 | 0.014 | 2.674 | 0.017 |
Occupation group | Males | Females | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted Mean | Standard Error | Weighted Mean | Standard Error | |
Management | 0.042 | 0.003 | 0.022 | 0.002 |
Business and Finance | 0.104 | 0.004 | 0.208 | 0.007 |
Natural and Applied Sciences | 0.220 | 0.006 | 0.088 | 0.005 |
Health | 0.018 | 0.002 | 0.073 | 0.004 |
Social Science | 0.052 | 0.003 | 0.068 | 0.004 |
Art, Culture and Recreation | 0.007 | 0.001 | 0.013 | 0.002 |
Sales and Services | 0.208 | 0.005 | 0.332 | 0.007 |
Trades, Transport and Equipment Operators | 0.125 | 0.004 | 0.021 | 0.002 |
Primary Industry | 0.015 | 0.001 | 0.019 | 0.002 |
Processing Manufacturing and Utilities | 0.209 | 0.006 | 0.158 | 0.006 |
Channels through which current main job was found | Males | Females | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted Mean | Standard Error | Weighted Mean | Standard Error | |
Job found through family ties | 0.064 | 0.003 | 0.083 | 0.004 |
Job found through co ethnic friends | 0.165 | 0.005 | 0.171 | 0.006 |
Job found through non-co ethnic friends | 0.033 | 0.002 | 0.035 | 0.003 |
Social capital indicators | Males | Females | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted Mean | Standard Error | Weighted Mean | Standard Error | |
Number of relatives in Canada | 0.800 | 0.013 | 0.881 | 0.015 |
Relatives living nearby upon landing | 0.487 | 0.007 | 0.549 | 0.008 |
Relatives living far upon landing | 0.036 | 0.003 | 0.033 | 0.003 |
Frequency of contact with family sponsors | 0.218 | 0.005 | 0.294 | 0.007 |
Number of sources meeting friends | 2.772 | 0.022 | 2.727 | 0.027 |
Friends living nearby upon landing | 0.512 | 0.007 | 0.483 | 0.008 |
Friends living far upon landing | 0.112 | 0.004 | 0.091 | 0.005 |
Ethnic diversity of friends | 0.495 | 0.004 | 0.494 | 0.005 |
Frequency of contact with friends | 0.791 | 0.003 | 0.792 | 0.003 |
Ethnic diversity of workplace network | 0.790 | 0.003 | 0.770 | 0.004 |
Participation in organization | 0.298 | 0.006 | 0.286 | 0.007 |
Males | Females | |
---|---|---|
Number of individuals | 3014 | 2399 |
Number of observations | 6235 | 4448 |
Data source: Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (2005).
Table A.3. Estimated effects of non-social capital and social capital variables on the log of real weekly wages
Immigration category | Males | Females | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | |
Skilled Workers (PA) | 0.100*** | -0.204 | 0.063* | 0.095*** | -0.100 | 0.046 | ||
Skilled Workers (S&D) | 0.020 | -.324** | -0.005 | 0.010 | -0.334 | -0.042 | ||
Refugees | -.084** | -.534*** | -.084** | -0.048 | -0.342 | -0.061 | ||
Others | -0.057 | -.310*** | -0.050 | -0.061 | -0.215 | -0.063 |
Demographic variables | Males | Females | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | |
Age | 0.041*** | 0.069*** | .082*** | 0.041*** | 0.037*** | -0.030 | 0.020 | 0.043*** |
Age2 | -.051*** | -.087*** | -.102*** | -.050*** | -.052*** | -0.023 | -.033** | -.060*** |
Married | 0.027 | 0.011 | -0.001 | 0.017 | 0.013 | -0.017 | -0.009 | 0.005 |
Province and CMA of residence | Males | Females | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | |
Atlantic Provinces | -.137* | -0.166 | -.230** | -.142* | -.201** | -.542*** | -.533*** | -.238** |
Quebec | -.316*** | -1.245*** | -.593*** | -.274*** | -.113** | -.296* | -.281** | -.137* |
Manitoba and Saskatchewan | -.167*** | -0.108 | -.173** | -.173*** | -0.080 | -.975*** | -.701*** | -.117* |
Alberta | -0.027 | 0.061 | -0.076 | -0.044 | -0.053 | -.340** | -.262*** | -0.057 |
BC | -0.061 | -0.205 | -.142* | -0.019 | -0.039 | -0.030 | -0.043 | -0.016 |
Toronto | 0.008 | 0.019 | 0.020 | -0.001 | 0.009 | 0.034 | 0.019 | 0.018 |
Montreal | 0.061 | 0.021 | 0.061 | 0.034 | 0.020 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.050 |
Vancouver | 0.184*** | 0.788*** | 0.419*** | 0.138** | 0.067 | 0.311** | 0.256*** | 0.082 |
Ottawa-Hull | 0.046 | -0.129 | -0.049 | 0.065* | 0.092** | 0.445*** | 0.331*** | 0.082* |
Calgary | -0.035 | -0.039 | 0.021 | -0.041 | 0.032 | -0.189 | -.176* | 0.036 |
Region of birth | Males | Females | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | |
Asia and Pacific | -.178*** | -0.113 | -.191*** | 0.006 | -0.057 | -0.017 | ||
Central and South America | -.122** | -0.177 | -.144** | -0.034 | -0.186 | -0.041 | ||
Europe except UK and Western Europe | -.239*** | -0.061 | -.263*** | -0.060 | -0.066 | -.120** | ||
Africa and Middle-East | -.113** | -0.094 | -.136** | -0.003 | -0.039 | -0.050 |
Ethnic group | Males | Females | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | |
Chinese | -.181*** | -.161* | -.189*** | -.092* | 0.009 | -0.051 | ||
South Asian | -.071* | 0.124 | -.084* | -0.070 | 0.122 | -0.091 | ||
Black | -.076* | 0.062 | -.109** | 0.001 | 0.244 | -0.103 | ||
Filipino | -.107** | 0.140 | -.139*** | -0.037 | 0.151 | -0.089 | ||
Latin | -0.104 | 0.096 | -.127** | -0.010 | 0.142 | -0.081 | ||
West Asian and Arab | -.170*** | -0.065 | -.160*** | -.117** | -0.055 | -.123** | ||
Other Asian | -.154*** | -.197* | -.158*** | -.203*** | -0.259 | -.195*** | ||
Other Visible Minority | -.266*** | -0.023 | -.276*** | 0.013 | 0.250 | -0.003 |
Education | Males | Females | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | |
High school diploma or less | -.085*** | 0.189 | 0.116 | -.075*** | -.088*** | 0.093 | 0.026 | -0.041 |
Some post-secondary education | -0.046 | -0.006 | -0.035 | -0.037 | -0.054 | -0.031 | -0.067 | -0.039 |
College diploma or some university | -.071*** | 0.070 | 0.030 | -.056** | -.063*** | -0.042 | -0.060 | -0.039 |
Master's degree or above | 0.016 | -0.061 | -0.076 | 0.008 | 0.031 | -0.091 | -0.091 | 0.015 |
Currently in school | -.088*** | -.067*** | -.069*** | -.089*** | -.075*** | -.043* | -.047*** | -.064*** |
Language ability | Males | Females | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | |
English | 0.027 | 0.063** | 0.055** | 0.005 | -0.011 | -0.014 | -0.018 | -0.028 |
French | -0.023 | -0.024 | -0.006 | -0.037 | 0.005 | -0.003 | -0.003 | -0.001 |
Experience | Males | Females | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | |
Had work experience before landing | 0.052* | 0.077 | 0.040 | 0.070*** | 0.255** | 0.061** | ||
Number of weeks in Canada after landing | 0.000 | 0.002*** | 0.002*** | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.002*** | 0.001** | 0.000 |
Number of weeks in Canada after landing2 | 0.000 | -.000*** | -.000*** | 0.000 | 0.000 | -.000** | -.000* | 0.000 |
Had an arranged job upon landing | 0.167*** | 0.139** | 0.172*** | 0.148*** | 0.230 | 0.119** | ||
Visited Canada before landing | 0.105*** | 0.218*** | 0.110*** | 0.072*** | 0.171 | 0.066** | ||
Worked in Canada before landing | 0.195*** | 0.178** | 0.189*** | -0.013 | 0.078 | 0.028 | ||
Studied in Canada before landing | -0.002 | -0.108 | -0.003 | 0.023 | -0.029 | 0.020 |
Job characteristics | Males | Females | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | |
Number of current jobs | -.130*** | -.063** | -.064*** | -.141*** | -.046** | 0.025 | 0.027 | -0.037 |
Hours worked per week | 0.022*** | 0.019*** | 0.019*** | 0.022*** | 0.028*** | 0.023*** | 0.023*** | 0.028*** |
Weeks in employment | 0.001*** | -0.001 | 0.000 | 0.001*** | 0.001*** | 0.001* | 0.001*** | 0.001*** |
Skill level | -.115*** | -.088*** | -.090*** | -.122*** | -.091*** | -.084*** | -.086*** | -.087*** |
Occupation group | Males | Females | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | |
Business and Finance | -0.047 | 0.019 | 0.019 | -.068* | 0.109** | 0.050 | 0.059 | 0.094* |
Natural and Applied Sciences | 0.197*** | 0.181*** | 0.216*** | 0.160*** | 0.352*** | 0.201*** | 0.212*** | 0.328*** |
Health | 0.177*** | 0.391*** | 0.310*** | 0.112* | 0.257*** | 0.242*** | 0.257*** | 0.251*** |
Social Science | -.122*** | -0.025 | -0.047 | -.161*** | 0.024 | 0.037 | 0.037 | 0.038 |
Art, Culture and Recreation | -.151** | 0.093 | 0.019 | -.200*** | -.162** | -.713*** | -.656*** | -0.096 |
Sales and Services | -.205*** | -.142*** | -.147*** | -.216*** | -.112** | -0.097 | -.092* | -0.090 |
Trades, Transport and Equipment Operators | -0.046 | -0.002 | 0.005 | -0.053 | -.155** | -0.095 | -0.088 | -0.133 |
Primary Industry | -.091* | 0.035 | 0.007 | -.123** | -0.009 | 0.033 | 0.027 | 0.020 |
Processing Manufacturing and Utilities | 0.037 | 0.117** | 0.114*** | 0.010 | 0.021 | 0.080 | 0.088* | 0.011 |
Channels through which current main job was found | Males | Females | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | |
Job found through family ties | -0.007 | 0.030 | 0.029 | -0.068 | 0.045** | 0.069** | 0.071*** | 0.151 |
Job found through co ethnic friends | -0.018 | 0.010 | 0.009 | -.219* | -0.017 | 0.005 | 0.004 | -0.153 |
Job found through non-co ethnic friends | 0.005 | 0.037 | 0.040 | -0.194 | -0.040 | -0.012 | -0.015 | -.638** |
Social capital indicators | Males | Females | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | |
Number of relatives in Canada | -0.004 | -.097** | -.103*** | -0.006 | 0.000 | -.115* | -.119*** | -0.013 |
Relatives living nearby upon landing | -0.017 | -.520* | -0.007 | -0.004 | -0.444 | 0.017 | ||
Relatives living far upon landing | 0.055 | 1.515* | 0.044 | 0.038 | 1.642 | 0.051 | ||
Frequency of contact with family sponsors | 0.040* | 0.051 | 0.056** | 0.026 | 0.020 | 0.033 | 0.031 | 0.010 |
Number of sources meeting friends | 0.003 | 0.003 | 0.003 | 0.010 | -.011** | -.010* | -.010*** | -0.008 |
Friends living nearby upon landing | -0.008 | -0.114 | -0.007 | 0.028 | 0.046 | 0.024 | ||
Friends living far upon landing | 0.050** | 0.243 | 0.041 | 0.038 | -1.359 | 0.036 | ||
Ethnic diversity of friends | 0.021 | 0.028 | 0.025 | -.327* | 0.012 | 0.034 | 0.029 | -.373* |
Frequency of contact with friends | 0.003 | -0.021 | -0.022 | 0.122* | 0.013 | 0.031 | 0.034 | 0.175** |
Ethnic diversity of workplace network | 0.180*** | 0.130*** | 0.138*** | 0.600** | 0.186*** | 0.142*** | 0.146*** | 0.957*** |
Participation in organization | 0.007 | 0.023* | 0.023* | 0.084 | 0.017 | 0.003 | 0.003 | 0.210 |
Males | Females | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | Random effects | Fixed effects | Hausman-Taylor | Panel IV (EC2SLS) | |
_cons | 4.926*** | 4.270*** | 4.377*** | 4.820*** | 4.356*** | 6.359*** | 5.148*** | 3.753*** |
No. of observations | 6235 | 6235 | 6235 | 6235 | 4448 | 4448 | 4448 | 4448 |
No. of individuals | 3014 | 3014 | 3014 | 3014 | 2399 | 2399 | 2399 | 2399 |
chi2 | 9088.070 | 5505.687 | 5863.969 | 5872.993 | 7446.827 | 4711.482 | 5370.115 | 5369.095 |
r2 | 0.510 | 0.543 | ||||||
rho | 0.527 | 0.764 | 0.858 | 0.397 | 0.427 | 0.830 | 0.979 | 0.378 |
* p<0.1; ** p<0.05; *** p<0.01.
Note: The Hausman-Taylor estimates assume the endogeneity of social capital variables, education, skill level, job tenure and working hours with unobserved heterogeneity.
Data source: Longitudinal survey of immigrants to Canada (2005).
Table A.4. Estimates of interaction effects of social capital on the log of real weekly wages
TVexogenous* | Male | Female | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Coefficient | Standard Error | Coefficient | Standard Error | |
Demographic variables | ||||
Age | 0.079*** | 0.010 | 0.017 | 0.012 |
Age2 | -0.098*** | 0.012 | -0.029* | 0.015 |
Married | 0.000 | 0.021 | -0.004 | 0.025 |
Province and CMA of residence | ||||
Atlantic Provinces | -0.213** | 0.104 | -0.511*** | 0.118 |
Quebec | -0.73*** | 0.113 | -0.255** | 0.110 |
Manitoba and Saskatchewan | -0.164** | 0.081 | -0.685*** | 0.131 |
Alberta | -0.037 | 0.071 | -0.25*** | 0.091 |
BC | -0.17** | 0.084 | -0.041 | 0.101 |
Toronto | 0.02 | 0.042 | 0.027 | 0.051 |
Montreal | 0.063 | 0.071 | -0.001 | 0.081 |
Vancouver | 0.524*** | 0.115 | 0.257*** | 0.094 |
Ottawa-Hull | -0.074 | 0.057 | 0.333*** | 0.098 |
Calgary | 0.002 | 0.067 | -0.158* | 0.094 |
Education | ||||
Currently in school | -0.067*** | 0.015 | -0.042** | 0.018 |
Language ability | ||||
English | 0.061*** | 0.023 | 0.001 | 0.025 |
French | -0.014 | 0.030 | 0.003 | 0.036 |
Experience | ||||
Number of weeks in Canada after landing | 0.002*** | 0.000 | 0.001*** | 0.000 |
Number of weeks in Canada after landing2 | 0.000*** | 0.000 | 0.000** | 0.000 |
Number of current jobs | -0.068*** | 0.020 | 0.028 | 0.021 |
Occupation group | ||||
Business and Finance | 0.014 | 0.038 | 0.064 | 0.047 |
Natural and Applied Sciences | 0.195*** | 0.033 | 0.21*** | 0.053 |
Health | 0.331*** | 0.068 | 0.254*** | 0.056 |
Social Science | -0.047 | 0.046 | 0.033 | 0.056 |
Art, Culture and Recreation | 0.036 | 0.071 | -0.644*** | 0.087 |
Sales and Services | -0.149*** | 0.038 | -0.084* | 0.050 |
Trades, Transport and Equipment Operators | 0.004 | 0.037 | -0.072 | 0.070 |
Primary Industry | 0.032 | 0.068 | 0.05 | 0.079 |
Processing Manufacturing and Utilities | 0.115*** | 0.039 | 0.101* | 0.053 |
TVendogenous * | Male | Female | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Coefficient | Standard Error | Coefficient | Standard Error | |
Education | ||||
High school diploma or less | 0.191* | 0.113 | 0.309*** | 0.100 |
Some post-secondary education | -0.209* | 0.106 | 0.311** | 0.131 |
College diploma or some university | -0.07 | 0.089 | 0.036 | 0.100 |
Master's degree or above | -0.078 | 0.053 | 0.182* | 0.096 |
Job characteristics | ||||
Hours worked per week | 0.019*** | 0.000 | 0.023*** | 0.001 |
Weeks in employment | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.001*** | 0.000 |
Skill level | -0.09*** | 0.010 | -0.091*** | 0.011 |
Channels through which current main job was found | ||||
Job found through family ties | -0.132*** | 0.038 | 0.196*** | 0.038 |
Job found through co ethnic friends | 0.018 | 0.014 | 0.002 | 0.016 |
Job found through non-co ethnic friends | 0.039 | 0.024 | 0.032 | 0.032 |
Social capital indicators | ||||
Number of relatives in Canada | -0.425*** | 0.127 | -0.121*** | 0.043 |
Frequency of contact with family sponsors | 0.05* | 0.026 | 0.025 | 0.030 |
Number of sources meeting friends | 0.003 | 0.003 | -0.01** | 0.004 |
Ethnic diversity of friends | 0.026 | 0.020 | 0.024 | 0.023 |
Frequency of contact with friends | -0.012 | 0.024 | 0.043 | 0.027 |
Ethnic diversity of workplace network | 0.126*** | 0.029 | 0.336*** | 0.052 |
Participation in organization | 0.023** | 0.011 | -0.001 | 0.013 |
Interaction effects | ||||
High school diploma or less * Kinship size | 0.022 | 0.076 | ||
Some post-secondary education * Kinship size | 0.209*** | 0.080 | ||
College diploma or some university * Kinship size | 0.141* | 0.080 | ||
Master's degree or above * Kinship size | 0.008 | 0.054 | ||
Skilled Workers (PA) * Kinship size | 0.217** | 0.091 | ||
Skilled Workers (S&D) * Kinship size | 0.469 | 0.294 | ||
Refugees * Kinship size | -0.065 | 0.211 | ||
Others * Kinship size | 0.333 | 0.222 | ||
Chinese * Kinship size | 0.331*** | 0.127 | ||
South Asian * Kinship size | 0.093 | 0.100 | ||
Black * Kinship size | 0.362* | 0.187 | ||
Filipino * Kinship size | 0.219* | 0.130 | ||
Latin * Kinship size | 0.038 | 0.190 | ||
West Asian and Arab * Kinship size | 0.505** | 0.251 | ||
Other Asian * Kinship size | 1.012 | 2.167 | ||
Other Visible Minority * Kinship size | -0.413 | 2.133 | ||
High school diploma or less * Job found through family ties | 0.211*** | 0.046 | ||
Some post-secondary education * Job found through family ties | 0.185*** | 0.062 | ||
College diploma or some university * Job found through family ties | 0.13** | 0.064 | ||
Master's degree or above * Job found through family ties | 0.161* | 0.083 | ||
English * Job found through family ties | -0.162*** | 0.043 | ||
French * Job found through family ties | 0.25*** | 0.091 | ||
French * Job found through co-ethnic friends | -0.097** | 0.041 | ||
French * Job found through non-co ethnic friends | -0.206*** | 0.068 | ||
High school diploma or less * Workplace diversity | -0.355*** | 0.081 | ||
Some post-secondary education * Workplace diversity | -0.46*** | 0.122 | ||
College diploma or some university * Workplace diversity | -0.099 | 0.088 | ||
Master's degree or above * Workplace diversity | -0.343*** | 0.094 |
TIexogenous * | Male | Female | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Coefficient | Standard Error | Coefficient | Standard Error | |
Immigration category | ||||
Skilled Workers (PA) | -0.591*** | 0.220 | -0.093 | 0.310 |
Skilled Workers (S&D) | -0.882*** | 0.297 | -0.325 | 0.329 |
Refugees | -0.737*** | 0.227 | -0.344 | 0.260 |
Others | -0.787*** | 0.273 | -0.209 | 0.246 |
Region of birth | ||||
Asia and Pacific | -0.077 | 0.132 | -0.053 | 0.305 |
Central and South America | -0.259 | 0.203 | -0.176 | 0.367 |
Europe except UK and Western Europe | -0.086 | 0.109 | -0.055 | 0.239 |
Africa and Middle-East | -0.101 | 0.122 | -0.036 | 0.294 |
Ethnic group | ||||
Chinese | -0.398*** | 0.141 | 0.022 | 0.249 |
South Asian | 0.091 | 0.168 | 0.134 | 0.267 |
Black | -0.179 | 0.170 | 0.257 | 0.234 |
Filipino | -0.082 | 0.259 | 0.185 | 0.299 |
Latin | 0.1 | 0.245 | 0.14 | 0.309 |
West Asian and Arab | -0.376* | 0.195 | -0.044 | 0.220 |
Other Asian | -0.748 | 1.140 | -0.241 | 0.277 |
Other Visible Minority | 0.424 | 2.138 | 0.27 | 0.372 |
Experience | ||||
Had work experience before landing | 0.077 | 0.078 | 0.268** | 0.112 |
Had an arranged job upon landing | 0.112 | 0.084 | 0.236 | 0.189 |
Visited Canada before landing | 0.204** | 0.081 | 0.179 | 0.161 |
Worked in Canada before landing | 0.163 | 0.115 | 0.073 | 0.221 |
Studied in Canada before landing | -0.102 | 0.124 | -0.015 | 0.203 |
TIendogenous * | Male | Female | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Coefficient | Standard Error | Coefficient | Standard Error | |
Relatives living nearby upon landing | -0.785** | 0.364 | -0.489 | 0.683 |
Relatives living far upon landing | 0.784 | 0.994 | 1.439 | 1.921 |
Friends living nearby upon landing | -0.033 | 0.371 | -0.004 | 0.649 |
Friends living far upon landing | 0.62 | 0.649 | -1.456 | 1.222 |
Male | Female | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Coefficient | Standard Error | Coefficient | Standard Error | |
_cons | 4.926*** | 0.388 | 5.05*** | 0.507 |
No. of observations | 6235 | 4448 | ||
No. of individuals | 3014 | 2399 | ||
rho | 0.927 | 0.978 |
* p<0.1; ** p<0.05; *** p<0.01.
Note: The interaction effects are estimated with Hausman-Taylor estimator assuming the endogeneity of social capital variables, education, skill level, job tenure and working hours with unobserved heterogeneity.
* TV: Time-varying variables. TI: Time-invariant variables.
Data source: Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (2005).
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